Mel Lincoln Journal (undated)

and including also one or more fused carpal bones

There are almost invariably three digits some authors consider these D-1 (thumb) D-2 (index finger) D-3 (middle finger), but the better view point is that they are D-2, D-3 and D-4 (ring finger). No bird has and no bird is known to have had more than these three digits; a few birds have but one - fig - D-3 (middle finger). D-2 bears the "bastard wing." In the archoptrix the three meta-carpals were free bones, like the digits on the hand of a lizard, this birds had claws on all three fingers tips; recent birds have claws on D-2 and D-3 only, chiefly the former, though it is said in some embryos (ostrich) there is a rudimentary claw on D-4.

Birds Tail The chief function of a birds tail is not as commonly supposed to serve as a rutter. It does serve this purpose in some extent in some birds, but where the wing is most perfected (e--g--swifts, petrels, etc), turning is brought about by that organ, the tail being in many cases relatively small. The chief purpose of the tail is with reference to up and down movement in the air. In [blank space] it may be thrown against the ground as a brake, in rising it may be spread like a kite, in soaring it may be used as a balancer, and in climbing it may be used as a brace, as in the

woodpeckers.

It seems certain that the long tail of the archioptrix was used as a kite and also as a brake when it settled from its awkward flight.

Birds Feet I. Insessorial type (perching) a. Typical. Like a hand for grasping branches digits free and moveable with thumb in apposition (--e--g-robing blue birds, etc.) Toes cleft to base and hind toe incumbent. This is the typical passerine foot. b. Syndactyl. Outer and middle toes cohere for most of their extent and have a broad sole in common (--e--g - kingfishers, rarely used feet for progress but simple for sitting motionless. c. Zygodactyl. (Yoke toe). Two any two or two against one (--e--gwoodpeckers) simply one modification, no classifitory significence. Cuckoos are zygodactyl but do not climb, nuthatches and creepers are adroint climbers but are not zygodactyl; they have typical passerine feet.

d. An abnormality resulting from elevation or versatility of the hind toe (--e-g-Goatsuckers) generally associated with [blank space]

e. Raptorial (Birds of Pray) Toes spread widely in order that the talons may, like grappling irons, seize pray. Claws immensely developed and under surface of toes scabrous or bullous for greater security of the object grasped.

II. Cursorial or Grallatorial Type. (Running or wading) Decrease or entire loss of grasping function, elevation, reduction in length or loss of the hind toe, a good foot but nothing of a hand. A. Columbae. (Partially terrestrial, partly aborial) (Trees and ground). Exhibits transition between perches and walkers; in some, reduction of the hind toe. (e--g- Doves) B. Gallinae(e--g Domestic chickens, grouse, quail etc.) Decidedly elevated and shortene. C. Grallatores (waders) - (e-g Sandpipers, plovers) In many of these the hind toes disappear. III. Natatorial Type (A swimming implement) Foot and hand functions nearly abrogated, swimmers are notoriously bad walkers, and few of them are perchers. A. Palmate Type.

All front tors united by webbing, sometimes reduced to semi-pabmation. Some times toto palmate (all four toes webbed) occurs (e--g steganopooles)

b. Lobate; Lobation. Usely associated with semepalination (e--g Grebes)

Birds Spurs

Birds spurs are developed on the metarsal which correspond in our feet with the bones of the instep. They are of the same nature as claws, being hard, horny modifications of the epidermus; they have nothing to do with the digits; they possess a long core like the horns of cattle and occur chiefly in Galline, the only instance of their occuring among indigenous birds of North America is found in the Wild Turkey[.]

The Sternum of Birds

I. Ratile Type (Raft like) assin the Ratitae, (e--g Ostrich, Emu, Aptryx). The breast bone is platish with little or no keal.

II.