Mel Lincoln Journal (undated)

also the feather quills as well as the bones were made hollow. The bones of birds are devoid of marrow and their hollow interiors are connected by air passages with the lungs, so that their lung space is insufficient for an animal of such an active live, is supplemented by the air spaces of the hollow bones and the air sacks throughout the body.

Birds Plumage Feathers are modified scales; like scales; hairs, horns, claws etc. they are epidermic in structures. The horny coverings of the beak and feet are of the same structure. The common color pigments are black, red, yellow and green: browns are do to various mixtures of red and black pigments; all blues, most greens, and some yellows, result from the surface conditions of the feather in connection with under lying pigment, there is no blue pigment known in birds. the color bases of a blue may be for example a brownish or a blackish pigment. White is no color but results from the molecular structure of the feather in the absence of pigment. Iridescence is wholy do to the superficial texture of the feather without regard to the subjacent pigment. It is merely an optical phenomenon and is carried to its heighth of perfection in the humming birds.

Any bird may exhibit abnormal color, or lack of color either as a diseased condition, or as do to peculiar [?], or to directly applied tincture. The principle abnormal conditions are; first, albinoism or abnormal whiteness do to failure of pigment. This is the most common. Second, abnormal blackness, from excess of black pigment. This is much less common than albinoism, but not rare. Third xanthism or yellowness, as when a red orange, or green bird turns out more or less yellow. Fourth, erythism, or redness, feeding on [?] pepper may produce erythism. In Brazil a counterfeit species of a certain green headed pariot is fashionable; the counterfeit is produced by rubbing the skin secretion of a toad into the budding feathers of the head and thus making the head feathers yellow instead of green.

Birds not not perspire and cutaneous oil glands are hardly known among them, but their "oil can" is a two-lobed gland saddled on the "popes nose." Birds press out a drop of oil when [from ?]their bill or beak and dress or primp their feathers with it. This gland is large and always present on aquatic birds which have need of water proof plumage; small inlands birds as a rule and even wanting in some.

Down is scanty on most newly hatched birds that are to be reared in the nest by the parents (altricial

Birds), there are some exceptions, for example young hawks and owls; but thick and puffy on all birds that run about as soon as hatched (Precocial Birds). In any case true feathers soon appear, those of the wings and tail being, usually the first to sprout.

Feathers are of such rapid growth and make such a drain upon the vital energies, that periods of molt are critical. The molt is usually annually in many cases more than one mold is required to secure adult plumage; sometimes change progresses for several years and some birds appear to have a period of senile decline. Many birds molt twice a year, the additional molt usualy occuring in spring and being generally incomplete, this is called double molting (e--g--herons). A few birds (e--g--ptarmigans) reguarly have a triple moult, sheding their feathers by an annual molt in the summer, then soon changing by another (partial) molt to pure white for the winter, then in spring moulting again (partial) to assume their wedding dress. The males of many species (Lark buntings) moult into a part-mystial plumage in which they resemble the female. The moulting of feathers analogous to the sheding of hair of mamals or the casting off of the entical of reptiles. Some birds shead portions of the bony coverings of the bill (e--g--pelican), skimmers, ), feet (e--g--grouse), etc. as a rule the males differ from the females in plumage

Birds Bills

The bill is primarily an organ of prehension it is usualy horny in texture. In nearly all waders and most swimmers the sheath becomes softer and wholly or partially of a leathery texture. Snipes have soft bills, vascular and nervous at the tips becoming a true organ of touch; used to feel for worms concealed in the mud. In all ducks the bill is likewise soft but always ends in a hard horny nail.

Birds Wings The wings correspond to hands and generally are used for flight; but by the ostrich group only to aid in running. By penguins as fins for swimming under water; used also in this capacity by some birds that fly well as divers, cormorants, and dippers.

The first and second joints of the wing contain respectively one humerus and one radius and one ulna as in our arms. The wrist joint contains ordinarily two, sometimes but one, carpal. The hand proper in all recent birds contains only a single meta-carpal bone; but this is a compound bone consisting of three meta-carpal bones fused in on